Histology

    Cataract

A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of eyes. Clouded vision caused by cataracts can make it more difficult to read, drive a car (especially at night).

Most cataracts develop when aging or injury changes the tissue that makes up eye's lens.Some cataracts are related to inherited genetic disorders that cause other health problems and increase the risk of cataracts. Cataracts can also be caused by other eye conditions, medical conditions such as diabetes, trauma or past eye surgery. Long-term use of steroid medications, too, can cause cataracts to develop.

The lens, where cataracts form, is positioned behind the iris. The lens focuses light that passes into eye, producing clear, sharp images on the retina, the light-sensitive membrane on the back inside wall of the eyeball that functions like the film of a camera.

A cataract scatters the light as it passes through the lens, preventing a sharply defined image from reaching your retina. As a result, vision becomes blurred.

Symptoms:

·         Clouded, blurred or dim vision

·         Increasing difficulty with vision at night

·         Sensitivity to light and glare

·         Frequent changes in eyeglass or contact lens prescription

·         Fading or yellowing of colors

·         Double vision in a single eye

The only effective treatment for cataracts is surgery.

Histology

                                         

    Mumps

Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects the parotid glands, one of three pairs of saliva-producing (salivary) glands, situated below and in front of ears. The cause of mumps is the mumps virus, which spreads easily from person to person through infected saliva.

Symptom:

·         Swollen, painful salivary glands on one or both sides of your face (parotitis)

·         Fever

·         Headache

·         Muscle aches

·         Weakness and fatigue

·         Loss of appetite

·         Pain while chewing or swallowing

Because mumps is caused by a virus, antibiotics aren't effective. Fortunately, most children and adults recover from an uncomplicated case of mumps within about two weeks.

In general, person has an immunity to mumps if previously had the infection or if they've been immunized against mumps.

The mumps vaccine is usually given as a combined measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) inoculation, which contains the safest and most effective form of each vaccine. Two doses of the MMR vaccine are recommended before a child enters school:

·         The first between ages 12 and 15 months

·         The second between ages 4 and 6 years, or between 11 and 12 if not previously given

Histology

   

                                                   Celiac disease

Celiac disease (CD), or gluten sensitive enteropathy, is a condition in which ingested wheat gluten or related proteins from rye and barley are not tolerated. HLA and non-HLA genes together with gluten and possibly additional environmental factors are involved in disease development. CD4`T cells are central in controlling an immune response to gluten that causes the immunopathology, but the actual mechanisms responsible for the tissue damage are as yet only partly characterized. This causes inflammation in the intestines and damages the villi, the hair-like structures on the lining of the small intestine. If the villi are damaged, the person cannot absorb nutrients properly and ends up malnourished, no matter how much he or she eats. The classic signs are diarrhea and weight loss. In addition to digestive problems, other symptoms include:

·         Anemia

·         Osteoporosis and osteomalacia

·         Itchy, blistery skin rash

·         Damage to dental enamel

·         Headaches and fatigue

A gluten-free diet is essential, and the only treatment for managing celiac disease.

Temporomandibular Joint Disorders

                   Temporomandibular Joint Disorders

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) acts like a sliding hinge, connecting jawbone to skull. TMJ disorders can cause pain in jaw joint and in the muscles that control jaw movement. The exact cause of a person's TMJ disorder is often difficult to determine. Pain may be due to a combination of problems, such as arthritis or jaw injury. Some people who have jaw pain also tend to clench or grind their teeth, but many people habitually clench their teeth and never develop TMJ disorders.

Symptoms of TMJ disorders:

·         Pain of jaw

·         Aching pain in and around ear

·         Difficulty chewing or discomfort while chewing

·         Aching facial pain

·         Locking of the joint (difficult to open or close your mouth)

           The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) combines a hinge action with sliding motions. The parts of the bones that interact in the joint are covered with cartilage and are separated by a small shock-absorbing disk, which normally keeps the movement smooth.

Painful TMJ disorders can occur if:

·         The disk erodes or moves out of its proper alignment

·         The joint's cartilage is damaged by arthritis

·         The joint is damaged by a blow or other impact

One of the non-pharmaceutical treatments for TMJ disorder is Bite guards.

                                                       

                                                        Swollen lymph nodes

               Swollen lymph nodes usually occur as a result of exposure to bacteria or viruses. When swollen lymph nodes are caused by an infection, this is known as lymphadenitis.  Rarely, swollen lymph nodes are caused by cancer.

                Common areas for swollen lymph nodes include neck, under chin, armpits and groin. In some cases, the passage of time and warm compresses may be all you need to treat swollen lymph nodes. Treatment for lymphadenitis depends on the cause.  Symptom such as: Tender and painful lymph nodes, sore throat, fever and other indications of an upper respiratory infection and night sweats. The most common cause of swollen lymph nodes is an infection, particularly a viral infection, such as the common cold. However, there are other types of infections, including parasitic and bacterial.

 common infection

• Strep throat
• Measles
• Ear infections
• Infected tooth
• Mononucleosis
• Skin or wound infections, such as cellulitis or erysipelas
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) — AIDS

Histology

                     Hodgkin's lymphoma

Hodgkin's lymphoma: is a cancer of the lymphatic system, which is part of your immune 

system.In Hodgkin's lymphoma, cells in the lymphatic system grow abnormally and may 

spread beyond the lymphatic system. 

As Hodgkin's lymphoma progresses, it compromises your body's ability to fight infection.Hodgkin's lymphoma is one of two common types of cancers of the lymphatic system. The other type, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, is far more common.

It's not clear what causes Hodgkin's lymphoma.most Hodgkin's lymphoma occurs when an infection-fighting cell called a B cell develops a mutation in its DNA. The mutation tells the cells to divide rapidly and to continue living when a healthy cell would die. The mutation causes a large number of oversized, abnormal B cells to accumulate in the lymphatic system, where they crowd out healthy cells and cause the signs and symptoms of Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Hodgkin's lymphoma signs and symptoms may include:

• Painless swelling of lymph nodes in your neck, armpits or groin
• Persistent fatigue
• Fever and chills
• Night sweats
• Unexplained weight loss
• Loss of appetite
• Itching

Histology

Botulinum Toxin

Botulinum toxin is among the most deadly naturally occurring Neurotoxins, produced by the naturally occurring Clostridium botulinum and causing the fatal disease Botulism.  

Botulinum toxin is a protein consisting of seven related A-B toxins. Each botulinum toxin molecule is comprised of a heavy chain and of a light chain, connected by a disulfide bond. Botulinum toxin is a "blocking agent" preventing the release of certain neurotransmitters, specifically Acetylcholine, from the endings of the motor nerves.

Botulinum toxin has a light chain and a heavy chain, each of which contributes to the toxicity. The heavy chain allows the protein to bind to and enter a neuron. After the heavy chain allows entry, the light chain acts like a protease and cleaves proteins that would normally allow neurotransmitters to leave the cell. This is essentially a disruption of exocytosis or the release of neurotransmitters.

The blocked neurotransmitter, Acetylcholine, normally transmits a nerve impulse to a muscle, signaling the muscle to contract. By blocking this neurotransmitter, botulinum toxin causes its characteristic flaccid paralysis 

Histology

                                                                   
                                                              Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome 

          The Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is a genetic connective tissue disorder that affect blood vessels, skin, bone, ligaments, internal organ and teeth. It is supposed that 1 out of 5000 individuals suffer from Ehlers-Danlos syndrome throughout the world. The clinical symptoms varies from mild skin and joint dislocation to severe and life threatening vascular type. The most common form of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) is characterized by hyper extensibility of skin, fragile tissue especially skin which causes easy bruising, poor wound healing and hyper mobility of joint which causes dislocation and joint pain. In addition, mutation in the collagen which is one of the principal components of connective tissue lead to Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. 

 There are six distinct types of EDS and the main reason for causing this syndrome in gene mutation in collagen type I, III and IV. 

                     
              There is no cure for Ehlers-Danlos syndrome but treatment manage manifestation and prevent further damage. By decreasing blood pressure, reduce the stress in vassal because of fragile blood vessels. Pain relievers ibuprofen and naproxen sodium can reduce joint pain. Furthermore, maybe surgery recommended for repairing joints damaged.

Histology

                        

Nissl bodies (Nissl substance)

Nissl bodies is a large granular body found in neurons. These granules are of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and free ribosomes. They are the site of protein synthesis. The functions of Nissl bodies is thought to be the same as that of the rest of the ER and the golgi apparatus: the manufacture and release of proteins.

Astrocytes

Astrocytes are the most numerous and diverse neuroglial cells in the CNS. The functions of astroglial cells are many; astrocytes create the brain environment, build up the micro-architecture of the brain parenchyma, maintain brain homeostasis, store and distribute energy substrates, control the development of neural cells, synaptogenesis and synaptic maintenance and provide for brain defense.

Gray and White matter

The CNS has two kinds of tissue: grey matter and white matter, Grey matter, which has a pinkish-grey color in the living brain, contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are. White matter is made of axons connecting different parts of grey matter to each other.